腫瘤的重點有五個

1.腫瘤的分類和標記
2.腫瘤形成(環境致癌、化學致癌、放射線致癌、微生物致癌)
3.
腫瘤與基因、遺傳
4.腫瘤分子病理(致癌、抑癌、其他輔助基因等)
5.
腫瘤動力(侵犯、血管生成、轉移)及副腫瘤症候群 (腫瘤伴隨症候群)

 

分子病理分類

  1. 分為geneticepigenetic兩種
  2. Genetic基因的成因
    1. 研究直接或高度相關導致癌症的基因
    2. 主要有四大類
      1. Oncogene
      2. Tumor suppressor gene
      3. Apoptotic gene
      4. DNA repair gene
  3. Epigenetic基因上的成因
    1. 又稱為表觀遺傳學
    2. 主要為研究基因的表現和修飾,了解這些機制如何在不影響基因序列的情況下,達到調控基因表現,進而影響生物的表現型(phenotype)
    3. 主要有三大類
      1. Histone modification
      2. DNA methylation
      3. Non-coding RNA
  4. 腫瘤初始常為homogenous and monoclonal,但隨著時間的推進,會逐漸變為heterogenous
  5. The hallmarks of cancer and possible target
    1. Sustaining proliferative signaling Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) inhibitors
    2. Evading growth suppressors Cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors
    3. Avoiding immune destruction Immune activating anti-CTLA4 monoclonal antibody
    4. Enabling replicative immortality Telomerase inhibitors
    5. Tumor-promoting inflammation Selective anti-inflammatory drugs
    6. Activating invasion & metastasis Inhibitors of HGF/c-Met
      Hepatocyte growth factor, HGF
    7. Inducing angiogenesis Inhibitors of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) signaling
    8. Genome instability & mutation poly ADP- ribose polymerase (PARP) inhibitors
    9. Resisting cell death Proapoptotic BH3 mimetics
    10. Deregulating cellular energetics Aerobic glycolysis inhibitors

 

導致癌症的基因(genetic)

  1. Oncogene致癌基因(啟動)
    1. 常和這五大類有關
      1. Growth factors
      2. Growth factor receptors
      3. Signal transduction proteins
      4. Transcription activators
      5. Cell cycle regulators
    2. 主要的細胞週期相關分子及其抑制
      1. Cyclin-dependent kinases
        CKD4Forms a complex with cyclin D that phosphorylates RB, allowing the cell to progress through the G1 restriction point
        CDK2
        Forms a complex with cyclin E in late G1, which is involved in G1/S transition. Forms a complex with cyclin A at the S phase that facilitates G2/M transition
        CDK1
        Forms a complex with cyclin B that facilitates G2/M transition
      2. Inhibitors
        CIP/KIP familyp21, p27 (CDKN2A-C)Block the cell cycle by binding to cyclin-CDK complex; p21 is induced by the tumor suppressor p53; p27 responds to growth suppressors such as TGF-β
        INK4/ARF family (CDKN1A-D)p16/INK4a binds to cyclin D-CDK4 and promotes the inhibitory effects of RB; p14/ARF increases p53 levels by inhibiting MDM2 activity
      3. Checkpoint components
        p53Tumor suppressor gene altered in the majority of cancer, causes cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. Acts mainly through p 21 to cause cell cycle arrest. Causes apoptosis by inducing the transcription of pro-apoptotic genes such as BAX. Levels of p53 are negatively regulated by MDM2 through a feedback loop. p53 is required for the G1/S checkpoint and is a main component of the G2/M checkpoint
        Ataxia-telangiectasia mutated
        Activated by mechanisms that sense double-stranded DNA breaks. Transmits signals to arrest the cell cycle after DNA damage. Acts through p53 in the G1/S checkpoint. At the G2/M checkpoint, it acts both through p53-dependent mechanisms and through the inactivation of CDC25 phosphatase, which disrupts the cyclin B-CDK1 complex. Component of a network of genes that include BRCA1 and BRCA2, which link DNA damage with cell cycle arrest and apoptosis
    3. 其他重要舉例
      1. Erythroblastic oncogene B = ERBB2 = Her-2 = human epidermal-growth-factor receptor 2EGFR家族,此基因的放大(amplification)會導致乳癌或卵巢癌
      2. Rearranged during transfection gene = RET基因,是一種colony stimulating factor receptor -1 (CSF-1R),點突變造成MEN第二型、medullary thyroid carcinomarearrangement則造成papillary thyroid carcinoma
      3. Retrovirus-associated DNA sequences = Ras,為最常見的致癌基因,為GTP-binding protein,常見於胰臟癌、肺癌、結腸癌等
      4. Abelson murine leukemia viral oncogene homolog 1 = ABL1或簡稱為ABL,此基因決定了一種tyrosine kinase,轉位(translocation)並與BCR融合(fusion)後,為費城染色體(Philadelphia chromosome),造成chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML)
      5. Cellular myelocytomatosis = c-Myc,產物為轉錄因子,其轉位(translocation)Burkitt lymphoma有關;N-MycN可能為nucleusneuroblastoma…(待查證),可以均質染色區(homogenous staining region, HSR)或雙微體(double minutes)的方式放大(amplification),此基因的放大容易導致neuroblastoma
      6. Cyclin-dependent kinase 4 = CDK4,調控細胞週期,melanoma常是此基因發生點突變或放大造成
  2. Tumor suppressor gene抑癌基因(缺失、未作用)
    1. Selected tumor suppressor genes involved in human neoplasms
      1. 共可以分為cell surfaceinner aspect of plasma membranecytoskeletoncytosolnucleus這幾大類
      2. 細節可以參考http://teachingcenter1.pixnet.net/blog/post/354439919
    2. NF-1可以抑制Ras,若NF-1缺失會造成neurofibromatosis type 1
    3. APC可以分解轉譯分子前驅物β-catenin,為家族性大腸息肉症的守門基因
    4. 最重要的抑癌基因為p53基因,位於17p13.1,可活化p21使G1 phase停下,活化GADD45進行修復,若不行則活化bax造成細胞死亡,大多癌症多有p53基因的缺失或突變,而Li-Fraumeni syndrome為先天p53缺乏,病患容易同時產生多種癌症
    5. Rb為細胞週期調節基因,缺失時會造成retinoblastoma (60%偶發、40%家族性)osteosarcoma,另外Rb基因所產生的蛋白,還有促進細胞分化及induce senescence的功能(pocket protein-E2F network)
    6. BRCA1BRCA2會參與DNA修復,缺失時與乳癌有關
    7. 二次打擊假說(two-hit hypothesis)
      1. 抑癌基因兩個allele都缺失才會致癌,故需要兩次打擊
      2. 第一次大多為點突變(遺傳),第二次多為刪除(deletion,後天)
      3. 故出生時為heterozygous,第二次打擊後變成homozygous mutation,稱為loss of heterozygosity (LOH)
    8. p16INK4a/cyclin D/CKD4/Rb為四個關鍵的細胞週期調控,大部分癌症多有任一個以上的缺失
  3. Apoptotic gene凋亡基因(未啟動(?))
    1. 一般來說,癌症細胞被認為是抑制了自身的凋亡,所以得以不斷的分裂、增大,例如最著名的bcl-2基因,會抑制細胞凋亡,他的過度活化,會造成follicular lymphoma
    2. 但也有另一派的假說,認為正常細胞的凋亡,可能會釋放出誘使周遭細胞癌化的分子,認為細胞的凋亡有可能反而是誘發癌症發生的原兇(之一?),此假說目前討論的不多,比較詳細的解釋發表在2016年的《Nature Reviews CancerA fate worse than death: apoptosis as an oncogenic process
  4. DNA repair gene修復DNA的基因(被破壞)
    1. 以下內容節選自wikihttps://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA%E4%BF%AE%E5%BE%A9

遺傳性疾病

受影響的修復機制(基因)

癌症相關性

多發性大腸直腸腺瘤

鹼基切除修復(MYH)

大腸直腸癌

著色性乾皮症

核苷酸切除修復(XP相關基因)

皮膚癌

柯凱因氏症候群

轉錄合併修復(CSACSB)

遺傳性非息肉大腸直腸癌

錯誤配對修復(MLH1MSH2)

大腸直腸癌

家族性乳癌、卵巢癌

同源性重組(BRCA1BRCA2)

乳癌卵巢癌

Ataxia Telangiectasis

同源性重組、非同源性末端接合(ATM)

淋巴癌

AT-like Disorder

同源性重組、非同源性末端接合(Mre11)

淋巴癌

Nijmegen Breakage症候群

同源性重組、非同源性末端接合(NBS1)

淋巴癌

IV型黏合酶缺失症

非同源性末端接合(lIG4)

血癌

Bloom Syndrome

同源性重組(BLM)

血癌、淋巴癌

維爾納綜合症

同源性重組(WRN)

各種癌症

Fanconi Anemia

同源性重組(FA相關基因)

血癌

  1. 重要的守門基因:RbNF-1VHL(3p)APC

 

重要的translocationt(8;14)(myc, Burkitt lymphoma)t(9;22)(費城染色體造成CML)t(8;14)(bcl-2活化造成follicular lymphoma)t(15;17)(retinoid acid receptor, AML)t(11;14)(cyclin D1, mantle cell lymphoma)

 

 

導致癌症的基因表現或修飾(epigenetic)

  1. Histone modification (組蛋白修飾)
    • 包含乙醯化(acetylation)磷酸化(phosphorylation)甲基化(methylation)以及泛素化(ubiquitination)
    • 組蛋白不同位置的胺基酸如果被甲基化,可能正向或負向調控基因的表現
    • 而當啟動子區域的組蛋白被乙醯化時,會促進基因的轉錄
      1. 乙醯基團轉移至組蛋白的lysine residues時,會導致染色質的結構打開,進而促進基因轉錄
      2. 而將乙醯基團移除,則會抑制此基因的表現
    • 目前認為histone modificationDNA的轉錄、修復、重組、複製相關
  2. DNA methylation (DNA甲基化)
    • 此過程參與許多調控,包含chromosome stabilitychromatin structureX chromosome inactivationembryonic developmenttranscription
    • CpG islands在活化的基因中與轉錄、啟始部位、啟動子有關,細胞可以藉由對此部位甲基化來調控基因表現
  3. Non-coding RNA (非編碼核醣核酸)
    • 包含micro RNAsmall RNAlarge RNApi-RNA
    • 這些非編碼核醣核酸也會影響到基因的轉錄與轉譯

 

tumor_and_DNA_repair_gene.PNG


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